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Class 12 Logic and Philosophy Chapter 2 Grounds of Induction
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Grounds of Induction
| GROUP – A |
| A. VERY SHORT TYPE QUESTION & ANSWER |
1. There are how many kinds of ground of induction?
Ans: Two.
2. ‘The uniformity of nature does not negate variety’- do you agree?
Ans: Yes.
3. The law of causation is a material ground of induction’-do you agree?
Ans: Yes.
4. Nature behaves in the same way under _____________ circumstances.
Ans: similar.
5. ‘A cause is the sum total of positive and negative condition taken together’ who says?
Ans: John Stuart Mill.
6. According to whom ’cause is the invariable antecedent of the effect?
Ans: According to David Hume ’cause is the invariable antecedent of the effect.”
7. If any and every antecedent of an event is regarded as the cause, then arises the-
Ans: Fallacy of Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc.
8. According to whom ‘observation is finding a fact and experiment is making one’.
Ans: According to Bain ‘Observation is finding a fact and experiment is making one’.
9. Who says ‘observation and experiment do not differ in kind but only in degree?’
Ans: Jevons says, ‘observation and experiment do not differ in kind but only in degree.’
10. What are the different fallacies of observation?
Ans: Fallacies of observation are of two kinds, viz., Non-observation and Mal- observation.
11. Is the cause of any event quantitatively equal to the effect?
Ans: Yes, the cause of any event is quantitatively equal to the effect.
12. The Law of Causation and the law of uniformity of Nature are what ground of Induction?
Ans: Formal ground of Induction.
13. “The Paradox of Induction is connected with the principle of the uniformity of Nature” – Is it true?
Ans: It is true.
14. “The ground of Induction is itself a result of induction” – Name the logician who said?
Ans: J. S. Mill.
15. The cause of any event is qualitatively, “The immediate, unconditional, invariable antecedent of the effect” and quantitatively “cause is equal to the effect” – Name the logician associated with the statement.
Ans: Carveth Read.
16. Name the logician associated with the statement-” Cause is the sum total of conditions, positive and negative taken together.”
Ans: J. S. Mill.
17. “Observation is passive while experiment is active” – Who says this statement?
Ans: Logician Stock.
18. “The Law of causation is a material ground of Induction” – Is it true?
Ans: No, it is false.
| B. SHORT TYPES ANSWER |
1. What do you mean by the grounds of induction?
Ans: The laws and processes depending on which induction establishes a general real proposition is known as the ground of induction.
2. What do you mean by the principle of the uniformity of nature?
Ans: The law of Uniformity of Nature states that nature behaves uniformity under similar circumstances. There is a unity among the diversities of nature. Among the changeable relations between the different parts of the world process, there is a general character. The law of Uniformity of Nature expresses this general character.
3. What is cause?
Ans: According to Carveth Read, the cause of any event is qualitatively, “the immediate, unconditional, invariable, antecedent of the effect” and qualitatively is “equal to the effect.”
4. Define material cause.
Ans: The material or substance from which a thing is made is called the material cause.
5. What do you mean by the doctrine of plurality of causes?
Ans: The doctrine of plurality of causes means that the same effect may be produced by different causes is different cases.
6. How many kinds of cause are there according to Aristotle? What are they?
Ans: According to Aristotle, there are four different types of causes. These are material cause, formal cause, efficient cause and final cause.
7. Define condition. What are the different kinds of condition?
Ans: Condition means any necessary factor of a cause. There are two different kinds of condition. They are Positive and Negative condition.
8. What do you mean by conjunction of causes?
Ans: The acting together of several causes, producing a joint effect is called conjunction of causes.
9. Define efficient cause with an example.
Ans: The labour, skill or energy spent in making a thing is called the efficient cause. For example, skill which the weaver applies to the material in making cloth is the efficient cause of the effect.
10. Mention two advantages of simple observation.
Ans: Two advantages of simple observation are:
(a) The scope of simple observation is wider than in experiment as it can be applied universally.
(b) In observation, we can proceed from a cause to the effect as well as from an effect to its cause.
11. How many kinds of different forms of uniformity of nature are there and what are they?
Ans: There are two different forms of uniformity of nature.
They are:
(i) Uniformity of succession.
(ii) Uniformity of coexistence.
12. How many kinds of Intermixture of effects and what are these?
Ans: Two kinds of Intermixture of effects are there.
They are:
(i) Homogeneous intermixture of effects.
(ii) Heterogeneous intermixture of effects.
13. Write two differences between plurality of causes and conjunction of causes.
Ans: Two differences between plurality of causes and conjunction of causes:
(i) According to plurality of causes, several causes acting independently produce the same effect at different times.
But, according conjunction of causes, several causes acting independently can not produce the effect. They can produce the effect jointly.
(ii) Regarding causal relation, doctrine of plurality of causes is a mis- conception. But the conjunction of causes is not a misconception. In fact, acting together several causes can produce an effect. So, it is a correct conception.
14. What do you mean by Paradox of Induction?
Ans: Mill’s contradictory statement regarding the principle of the Uniformity of Nature is known as the paradox of induction. It simple means that the ground of induction is itself the result of induction. Mills calls it a fundamental principle or general axiom of induction and an assumption implied in every case of induction. It is the ground of all kinds of induction.
15. Distinguish between agent and patient.
Ans: The thing acting is said to be the agent. Agents are those which acts. For example, if a glowing match stick is thrown to a heap of straw, there is fire. Here ‘glowing match stick’ is Agent.
On the other hand, the thing acted upon is said to be the patient. So, patients are those which are acted upon. In the above example “the heap of straw” is patient.
| S.L No. | CONTENTS |
| Chapter – 1 | Nature Of Inductive Enquiry, Various Kinds Of Induction |
| Chapter – 2 | Grounds Of Induction |
| Chapter – 3 | Hypothesis |
| Chapter – 4 | Mill’s Method Of Experimental Enquiry |
| Chapter – 5 | Realism-Naive Realism & Scientific Realism |
| Chapter – 6 | Idealism – Subjective Idealism & Objective Idealism |
| Chapter – 7 | Ethics |
| Chapter – 8 | Religion |
| C. SHORT TYPE ANSWERS |
1. What are the general conditions of observation?
Ans. The three general conditions of observation are:
(a) Intellectual condition.
(b) Physical condition.
(c) Moral condition.
2. Plurality of causes is a misconception regarding the nature of cause- why?
Ans: Plurality of causes is a misconception because the doctrine of plurality of causes is inconsistent with the definition of cause as the invariable antecedent. According to this definition, the same effect can be produced by same cause. For example, the effect ‘death’ is produced by disease in one case and by suicide in another case. It means that death is sometimes produced by disease, sometimes by suicide, sometimes by old age etc. So, neither disease nor suicide can be said to be the invariable antecedent. So, Plurality of causes is only the misconception about cause-effect relation.
3. Define moving power and collocation with examples.
Ans: The cause of event from the conservation of energy stand point is divided into two elements viz.,
(a) Moving power.
(b) Collocation.
Moving power is the force which moves or incites to action. Collocation means the arrangement of circumstances which is needed in order that the moving power can produce the changes. For example, if a glowing match stick is thrown into a heap of straw, there is a fire. Here, the ‘glowing match stick’ is moving power and ‘heap of straw’ is collocation. The effect ‘fire’ is produced by action of the moving power on the collocation.
4. What do you mean by conjunction of causes? Explain with example.
Ans: The acting together of several causes, producing a joint effect is called conjunction of causes.
For example:
Hydrogen and oxygen are mixed together in certain proportion and electric current passed, the joint effect is water. So, several causes acting together, produce a joint effect is called conjunction of causes.
5. Mention three advantages of observation over experiment.
Ans: The three advantages of observation over experiment are:
(i) Firstly, observation can be applied universally and has a wider scope than experiment. There are certain phenomenon which can not be artificially reproduced. They are beyond our control. e.g. eclipse or earthquake. Again, there are certain phenomenon which are too dangerous to experiment with. In such cases, we have to fall back on observation and wait until the phenomenon makes its appearance in the ordinary course of nature. Thus the range of observation is wider than that of Experiment.
(ii) Observation enables us to reason from the effect to the Cause as well as from the cause to the effect but Experiment only enables us to proceed from the cause to the effect and not backwards from the effect to the cuase. Suppose we want to find a dead rabit and want to find out the cause of its death. We can not, by experiment, get at the cause. Here, we must first conjecture a cause and then make an experiment. In this way we are proceeding from the supposed cause to its effect.
(iii) Observation preceeds Experiment. Experiment is possible only when some knowledge already has been acquired by observation. But by previous observation unless we know what we are to expect, adequate preparation are not possible.
6. Mention three advantages of experiment over observation.
Ans: The three advantages of experiment over observation are:
(i) Experiment enables us to multiply our instances indefinitely.
If one Experiment does not enable us to observe the phenomenon under investigation satisfactorily, we may try again and again. But in observation we wait for opportunties.
(ii) Experiment often enables us to isolate the phenomenon we are studying.
In experiment, it is possible to remove the phenomenon under investigation from the influence of all agents except that the influence of which we desire to observe. But in observation, nature presents a phenomenon in complex surroundings.
(iii) Experiment enables us to vary the surrounding circumstances indefinitely.
In Experiment we examine different sets of circumstances under which the phenomenon under investigation occurs. But in observation, we have to depend on the bounty of nature for the supply of a suitable variety of instances.
7. Find out two points of difference between the fallacy of non- observation and mal-observation?
Ans: Both non-observation and mal-observation are two kinds of the fallacies of observation, yet they have some differences.
Two main points of difference are:
(a) In non-observation we overlook something which ought to have bean observed. While in mal-observation by mistake we perceive a thing not as it is but as it appears.
(b) In non-observation, the essential instances and circumstances of an event are neglected by us and thus we commit the error. In non-observation, thing is overlooked altogether. In mal-observation we have wrong interpretation of sense perception. Noting is neglected by us. Only we see the thing wrongly.
8. Is simple observation completely passive experience? Explain.
Ans: It is wrong to suppose that event in observation is absolutely passive. Observation is not a mere passive reception of facts as they occur but is guided by a definite plan or purpose. Observation is selective. We observe those facts which are relevant to our enquiry and reject other facts which are unconnected with the phenomenon under investigation. This selection and rejection require mental activity. Hence even observation there is an element of activity, So, it is not passive experience.
9. Why are the observation and experiment called the material grounds of induction?
Ans: Induction establishes general propositions on the examination of 2017 particular instances and these particular instances which constitute the materials of induction are supplied by observation and Experiment. Thus, we conclude that “All men are mortal.” The instances of death of particular persons from which the general proposition is established are supplied by observation. Again, in certain cases, Experiment supplies the materials. For example, we take a certain quantity of Hydrogen and Oxygen and by using electric current, we get water. From this the general proposition “in all cases, water is composed of Hydrogen and Oxygen” – is established by Induction. So, both observation and Experiment supply the materials of inductive generalisation. Thus it is said that, Observation and Experiment is a material grounds of induction.
10. What are the different kinds of fallacies of observation? Define each of them with example.
Ans: There are two different kinds of fallacies of observation. They are:
(a) Non-observation. and
(b) Mal-observation.
Non obesrvation is the fallacy of overlooking something which ought to have been observed. For example – in certain instances where dreams dreamt during the small hours of the morning were fulfilled and conclude that they always come true. Non observation is of two kinds.
(i) Non-observation of instances.
(ii) Non observation of essential circumstances.
Mal-observation is the fallacy arising out of the wrong interpretation of sense perception. For example – in the dark night we mistake a rope for a snake.
11. What do you mean by fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc? Give an example.
Ans: Only invariable antecedent can be the cause of the effect. If we regard any antecedent of an effect as its cause, then we commit the fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc.
For example, a doctor enters in the hospital and the patient dies. So, if the entrance of doctor is regarded as the cause of the death of the patient, then it would involve the fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc.
12. Distinguish between the formal ground and material ground of induction.
Ans: The laws which guarantee the formal truth of induction are called formal grounds of induction. The law of Uniformity of Nature and the causation are formal grounds of induction.
The process which guarantee the material truth of induction are called material grounds of induction. Observation and experiment are material grounds of induction.
| D. LONG TYPE ANSWERS |
1. ‘The Law of causation is a formal ground of induction’- why?
Ans: The law of causation guarantees the formal truth of inductive generalisations.
There are certain principles, known as Canons of Elimination, which follows deductively from the law of causation and these canons forms the foundation of our enquiries into the cause of a phenomenon. In order to find out whether one event is the real cause of another events, we have to examine whether it conforms to the canons of Elimination. Hence, the formal truth of Induction depends on the observance of the Canons. As these canons are deduced from the Law of Causation, we conclude that the Law of Causation is a formal ground of Induction.
2. State and explain the quantitative marks of a cause.
Ans: According to the law of conservation of Matter and Energy, the cause is equal to the effect. Because, the total quantity of matter and energy in the world is constant, it can neither increase nor decrease, though it may change in form. So far as matter is concerned, the effect is identical with the cause, only the form may be different. When a certain quantity of Oxygen is combined with a certain quantity of Hydrogen to form water, the form is changed but the weight of water is equal to the weight of the substances combined. Again, so far as Energy is concerned, the quantity of energy is equal to the cause. For example, when a moving body loses its motion, it appears that the energy is lost but actually, it is converted into another energy, viz., Heat. So, it follows that quantitatively cause is equal to the effect.
3. What is condition? What are different kinds of condition? Explain with example.
Ans: According to Carveth Read, condition means any necessary factor of a cause.
Conditions are of two kinds- positive and negative. If the effect is to be produced, positive conditions must be present and negative conditions must be absent. On the other hand, if negative conditions are present, the effect would be frustrated. According to Mill, cause is the sum-total of positive and negative conditions.
The condition which helps to produce the effect is called positive condition.
The condition which tends to prevent the effect is called negative condition. For example, a labour falls from the roof of a home and dies. In this example, highness of the roof, hardness of the soil, get hurt in chest are positive conditions. Because, in presence of these conditions, the event occurs. On the other hand, his physical strength, getting anybody’s help and proper treatment are negative conditions. Because, these negative condition must be absent in order that the effect may be produced.
4. Distinguish between cause and condition.
Ans: Condition means any necessary factor of a cause. While cause is the sum total of the conditions positive and negative taken together. So, the relation between cause and condition is the relation between the whole and its parts. Condition is a part of the cause and all the conditions, positive and negative taken together constitute the cause. For example – a picture falls form the wall. The falling of the picture is the effect. The positive conditions are violent slumming of the door, the weakness of the cord with which the picture was hung up, the heaviness of the picture. The negative conditions are some support other than the weak cord, the presence of some person at the time when the picture fell so that he might have caught hold of it. If these negative conditions had been present, the picture would not have fallen. Both these positive and negative conditions constitute the cause.
5. Distinguish between simple observation and experiment.
Ans: The events in nature are complex and intermixed with one another Now, the function of observation and experiment is to detect the secrets. Both observation experiment are the material grounds of induction. The distinction between observation and experiment is two fold. Firstly, in experiment, the phenomenon is artificially reproduced. But in observation the phenomenon is an event in the ordinary course of Nature. If we watch electricity in the form of lightning, it is observation. But if we produce electricity in the laboratory, it is experiment. Secondly, in experiment we can control the circumstances of its happening. But in observation, the circumstances are beyond our control.
6. Find out the differences between conjunction of causes and plurality of causes.
Ans: The doctrine of Plurality of causes means that the same effect may be produced by different causes in different cases. For example – light may be produced by the Sun, the Moon, the Stars, by electricity etc. On the other hand, the acting together of several causes, producing a joint effect, is called conjuction of causes. For example – Hydrogen and oxygen are mixed together in certain proportion and an electric current passed, the joint effect is water.
The doctrine of conjuction of causes should not be confused with the doctrine of plurality of causes. In Plurality of causes, several causes acting separately and independently to produce the same effect, but in conjuction of causes, several causes acting jointly produce a joint effect which could not have been produced by any one of them acting singly.
7. Write a short note on Paradox of Induction.
Ans: Mill’s contradictory statement regarding the principle of the Uniformity of Nature is known as the paradox of induction. It means that the ground of induction is itself the result of induction. Mill regards the principle of the Uniformity of Nature as assumption, in another occasion he says that the principle of Uniformity of Nature is the result of unscientific induction. Uncontradicted experience is the ground of unscientific induction. Without causal connection, unscientific induction aims at establishing the conclusion.
Regarding the principle of Uniformity of Nature, the two statements made by Mill are contradictory to each other. So, the paradox of induction means that the ground of induction is itself the result of induction.
8. Distinguish between conjunction of causes and intermixture of effects.
Ans: When several causes acting together produce a joint effect, it is called conjunction of causes.
On the other hand, combining together of separate effects by the joint operation of mere separate causes is called intermixture of effects. For example, tea is prepared combining several ingredients i.e., milk, tea leaves, sugar water etc. Tea is prepared out of the combination of certain ingredients. So, the “combination of certain ingredients” is conjunction of causes and the act to prepare tea is called intermixture of effects.
| E. LONG TYPE ANSWERS |
1. What do you mean by the principle of the uniformity of nature? Why is it called the formal ground of induction?
Ans: We know that Nature is uniform. That means, Nature behaves in the same way under similar circumstances. If the same circumstances occur, the same events will follow. At first sight, it may appear that the nature is not always uniform. In nature various kinds of phenomenon occur, which are subject to definite laws. If the conditions be repeated, it will occur again. So, there are uniformities or laws in Nature. Nature is not a disorganised jumble of parts but the parts are organically related to the whole. All its parts are parts of one system.
The Law of Uniformity of Nature is an assumption in every case of Induction. We can not pass from the known to the unknown, from the particular to the general, unless we take for granted that Nature will behave in the same way under similar circumstances. So, Mill holds that the Uniformity of Nature is the guarantee, the ultimate major premise of all induction. Every Induction can be thrown into a syllogism, with a major premise, which is a special form of Uniformity of Nature So it is said that the principle of Uniformity of Nature is the Formal ground of Induction.
2. What is cause? What are the qualitative marks of cause?
Ans: Cause is the immediate, unconditional, invariable antecedent of the effect.
Qualitative marks of causation:
(a) The cause is relative to a given phenomenon called the effect. Cause and effect are relative to each other. This means, without cause the effect is impossible and without effect cause is also impossible. Both of them depend on each other. Again, the same cause sometimes may be a cause and sometimes as an effect. The same phenomenon may be a cause in relation to a succeeding thing and may be an effect in relation to a preceding thing.
(b) The cause and effect are always events in time. An event in time means that there is a change in the existing state of things. If there are changes in existing state of things, then the causational question will come to our mind, why does a change happen? Likewise, we also enquire into the cause of flood, war, political revolution and so on.
(c) Cause is antecedent to the effect. Cause and effect are successively related. When two events happen successively, then the preceding one is called, antecedent’ and the following one as the ‘consequent’. The cause is always antecedent and the effect in always consequent.
(d) Cause is invariable antecedent to the effect. Every effect has a cause. This cause always precedes the effect means the cause is antecedent, but irregular antecedent to the effect can not be cause. Only invariable antecedent is regarded as the cause of an effect. Invariable antecedent is that which is always followed by the effect. If we regard any antecedent of an effect as its cause, then we commit the fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc. So, only invariable antecedent can be the cause of the effect.
(e) Cause is unconditional, invariable antecedent to the effect. Mill states that, the cause is not merely invariable antecedent. The antecedent must be unconditional also. It means that a cause must be sufficient by itself to produce the effect. The same conditions, sufficient by themselves, will be present, the same effect will necessarily follow. For Mill, the cause not only precedes the effect but also produces it. So, relation between cause and effect is necessary.
(f) Cause is unconditional, invariable, immediate antecedent to the effect. The cause is an immediate antecedent to the effect, not remote from the effect. This immediacy follows from the principle that cause must be unconditional antecedent. If the cause has to wait for another antecedent to produce the effect, it will loose its unconditionality. So, as soon as the cause appears, without delay, the effect must follow.
3. What do you mean by the doctrine of plurality of causes? Is it scientifically tenable?
Ans: The doctrine of plurality of causes means that the same effect may be produced by different causes in different cases. For example-death may be caused in one case by disease, in another by violence, in a third by poison or in a fourth by old age. But the doctrine of plurality of causes does not mean that a plurality of conditions taken together constituents the cause.
But from scientific point of view plurality of causes is untenable. The doctrine of plurality of causes is inconsistent with the definition of cause as the invariable antecedent. According to this definition, the same effect can be produced by same cause. The effect ‘death’ is produced by disease in one case and by suicide in another case. It means that death is sometimes preceded by disease, sometimes by suicide, sometimes by old age etc. So, neither disease nor suicide can be said to be the invariable antecedent. So, we may conclude that plurality of causes is unacceptable and untenable from scientific point of view. It is only the misconception about cause effect relation.
4. How many kinds of cause are there according to Aristotle? Explain each of them with example.
Ans: According to Aristotle, there are four kinds of causes. They are material cause, formal cause, efficient cause and final cause.
The material cause: The material or substance from which a thing is made is called the material cause. For example, threads are the material cause of cloth.
The formal cause: The new form or shape which is imposed on the object produced is called the formal cause. For example, the weaver takes a bundle of threads and impress on it the form of a particular cloth.
The efficient cause: The labour, skill or energy spent in making a thing is called the efficient cause. For example, strength or skill which the weaver applies to the material in making cloth is the efficient cause of the effect. Sometimes the agent is called the efficient cause.
The final cause: The purpose for which the processes are directed in making a thing is called the final cause. The final cause is originally present in the form of an idea in the material cause. For example, the purpose for which a cloth is made.
5. What is observation? What are its characteristics?
Ans: Observation is regulated perception of facts and circumstances with a definite purpose in view.
The characteristics of observation are:
(a) Observation is perception: Observation involves perception. In perception, we obtain knowledge through our different sense organs such as eye, ear, nose etc. In observation, our sense organs come in contact with various things and events and we get knowledge directly.
(b) Observation is regulated perception with a definite purpose: Though observation is perception, any kind of perception can not be observation. Everyday, we perceive so many things and events. But all of them can not be kept in our minds because without any preparation and interest, we only perceive them. A careless and casual perception can not be observation. Observation is a regulated perception. In the regulated perception, our mind is concentrated towards a definite object withdrawing if from other irrelevant objects. There must be a definite purpose also. So, the regulated perception with a definite purpose is called observation.
(c) Observation is always selective: To be observation, there must be a definite purpose in view and according to purpose. First, we select the object of perception. Observation is selective in the sense that observer pays attention to significant things and aspects of things. We neglect all other circumstances which have no connection with our purpose. Thus, it must not be random or haphazard.
(d) Observation is well organised: In observation, there must be a definite purpose in view and according to the purpose we select the object of perception. After selecting the object of perception, we carefully and in organised manner concentrate our mind towards that selected object. We withdraw our mind from other unnecessary or irrelevant objects. Thus, we systematically and methodically perceive the object and this perception is known as observation.
6. What is experiment? What are the advantages of experiment oversimple observation?
Ans: Experiment is the artificial reproduction of events, under conditions pre-arranged and selected by ourselves and observation of them when thus reproduced. In experiment, events are artificially reproduced by the investigator in a laboratory. The investigator can vary the circumstances as he likes.
Advantages of Experiment over observation are as follows:
(i) Firstly, experiment enable us to multiply our instances indefinitely.
(ii) Secondly, experiment often enable us to isolate the phenomenon we are studying.
(iii) Thirdly, experiment enables us to vary the surrounding circumstances definitely.
(iv) Lastly, experiment enables us to examine things with coolness and circumspection.
7. ‘Observation and experiment differ in degree not in kind’- Explain the statement.
Ans: According to some writers, simple observation is natural, while experiment is artificial. But this remark may mislead us. In observation, we depend on nature for the events. But by applying our natural powers also, we can not solve our problem. So, we must take the help of scientific instrument also. Thus simple observation is not wholly natural. Again, experiment is not wholly artificial. Because, in experiment we have to make use of our natural power in observing the event produced.
Some other logicians remark that, simple observation is passive experience but experiment is active experience. In observation, we are totally depend on nature. We watch events and changes as they occur in the ordinary course of nature, without interfering in the activity of nature and without any attempt to control them. But in experiment, the investigator prepares the special circumstances where events and changes occur. In experiment, the investigator is more active than in observation. But actually, it is not true that even in simple observation, the observer is completely passive. Observation is selective, so the observer observes those facts which are relevant to our enquiry and rejects the irrelevant and unnecessary facts. So, for this selection and rejection, the observer requires mental activity. So, even in observation there is an element of activity though in experiment the degree of activity is greater. Therefore, we can say that there is no real opposition between simple observation and experiment. They are not differ in kind. So, Jevons states that the difference between simple observation and experiment is the difference of degree only, not in kind.
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