Class 12 Logic and Philosophy Chapter 7 Ethics

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Class 12 Logic and Philosophy Chapter 7 Ethics

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Ethics

GROUP – A

A. VERY SHORT TYPE QUESTION & ANSWER

1. The word ‘Ethics’ is derived from which word?

Ans: Greek word ‘Ethica’.

2. The word ‘Moral’ derived from which word?

Ans: Latin word ‘Mores’.

3. What is the meaning of the word ‘Mores’?

Ans: ‘Mores’ means customs or habits.

4. What is the meaning of the word ‘Ethos’?

Ans: Ethos means character, customs usages or habits.

5. Give a brief definition of Ethics.

Ans: Ethics is the science of customs or habits of men.

6. Is ethics a positive science?

Ans: No, ethics is a normative science.

7. Is it true that ‘character is the inner counter part of conduct?’

Ans: Yes, it is true.

8. Are non-moral actions object of moral judgment?

Ans: Non-moral actions are object of moral judgment.

9. Do you agree that ‘end justifies the means?’

Ans: No, end never justifies the means.

10. What is the object of moral judgment?

Ans: Only voluntary and habitual actions are object of moral judgment.

11. How many Purusarthas are there?

Ans: There are four Purusarthas.

12. What type of science ethics is?

Ans: Ethics is normative science.

13. Is ethics a practical science?

Ans: No, it is not a practical science.

14. Give an example of Positive Science.

Ans: Physics is a positive science.

15. Give an example of Normative Science.

Ans: Logic is a Normative Science.

16. Give an example of non-moral action.

Ans: Action of floods is a non-moral action.

17. Is voluntary action regarded as object of moral judgement?

Ans: Yes, voluntary action is regarded as object of moral judgement.

18. Is habitual action regarded as object of moral judgement?

Ans: Yes, habitual action is regarded as object of moral judgement.

19. Does the end justify the means?

Ans: No, the end never justifies the means.

20. “Ethics is the science of the highest ideal involved in human conduct” Who says this.

Ans: Muirhead.

21. “Ethics may be defined as the study of what is right or good in conduct” – Write the name of the philosopher associated with the statement.

Ans: Mackenzie.

22. “We may define ethics as the normative science of the conduct of human beings living in societies” – Write the name of the philosopher associated with the statement.

Ans: William Lille.

B. SHORT TYPE ANSWERS

1. Define Ethics.

Ans: Ethics means the science of customs or habits of men. It evaluates the voluntary actions and habitual actions of persons and considers their rightness and wrongness. Ethics is also called ‘Moral Philosophy.”

2. What is normative science?

Ans: A normative science sets before itself a norm or ideal and deals with things as they should be.

3. What are the different stages of voluntary action?

Ans: A voluntary Action has three stages, viz, the mental stage, the bodily stage and the external stage of consequences.

4. Is habitual action the object of moral judgment? 

Ans: Yes, habitual action is the object of moral judgment. Habits are the result of repeated voluntary actions. Again, voluntary action is performed by a rational agent with desire, pre-vision and choice of ends and means. So, these actions are objects of moral judgment.

5. What do you mean by conflict of desires.

Ans: Desire is a craving of an agent for the attainment of an object to relieve some wants. It is a state of tension between the actual state of the self and the idea of a future state not yet realised. It is a complex mental state consisting of cognitive, affective and conative elements. In a complex action many wants demand satisfaction. If one satisfied, the other has to be rejected although. Thus, there arises in the mind a completion, rivalry or conflict between the different motive and desires.

6. What is the meaning of Purusartha?

Ans: Purusartha means the four supreme ends recognised by the ancient Hindus. Every man ought to pursue them in order to attain to his complete well-being.

7. What do you mean by Varnasrama Dharma?

Ans: Varnasram Dharma is a system which functions as an institution and enables individual to attain the four Purusarthas.

8. Why ethics is called a normative science?

Ans: Ethics tries to ascertain the moral ideal, but does not lay down rules or means for the attainment of it. It does not teach us how to live a moral life. As Mackenzie states, Ethics gives us a knowledge of the guiding principles of life, but does not tell us how to apply them. Thus Ethics is a normative science and not a practical science.

9. Define Moksa.

Ans: Moksa is the desire and will of every Hindu that he or she should attain Moksa i.e., Salvation. Moksa is possible when the soul rises above all activities of worldly life. It then rests in eternal peace and dose not suffer the tortures of life and death.

10. What do you mean by Trivarge?

Ans: Dharma, Artha and Kama are the trivargas. With these trivarga, one can attain his goal of life i.e. Moksa.

S.L No.	CONTENTS
Chapter – 1	Nature Of Inductive Enquiry, Various Kinds Of Induction
Chapter – 2	Grounds Of Induction
Chapter – 3	Hypothesis
Chapter – 4	Mill’s Method Of Experimental Enquiry
Chapter – 5	Realism-Naive Realism & Scientific Realism
Chapter – 6	Idealism – Subjective Idealism & Objective Idealism
Chapter – 7	Ethics
Chapter – 8	Religion

C. SHORT TYPE ANSWERS

1. What is moral action? Give two examples of moral action. 

Ans: Moral Actions are those actions in which moral quality i.e. rightness or wrongness is present. Voluntary actions and Habitual Actions are two examples of moral action.

2. What is non-moral action? Give two examples of moral action.

Ans: Non-moral action means action which is devoid of moral quality. The Phenomena of nature i.e. hurricanes, floods, famines etc. and the action of animal are two example of non- moral action.

3. Define voluntary action. Is habitual action voluntary?

Ans: Voluntary actions are actions performed by an agent deliberately and intentionally in order to realize some foreseen ends. They are actions performed by the self with a volition or will.

Habits are the results of repeated voluntary actions. So, Habitual action is voluntary.

4. Describe any three non-voluntary action.

Ans: Three non-voluntary action are:

(a) Actions of inanimate things. For example, hurricanes, floods etc. 

(b) Spontaneous or random actions – Actions that are the results of spontaneous outflow of energy from nerve centres.

(c) Reflex action-i.e., automatic response to sensory stimulation from without.

5. Write short notes on Spring of action.

Ans: Every voluntary action springs out of some want or need. This feeling of want is always painful. But it is usually mined with pleasure which arises from the anticipation of satisfaction of the want in future.

6. What do you mean by conflict of desires.

Ans: In a complex action many wants demand satisfaction. If one is satisfied, the other has to be rejected altogether. Thus, there arises in the mind a competition, rivalry or conflict between the different motive and desires.

7. Write short note on final stage or stage of consequence of voluntary action.

Ans: The bodily action produces changes in the external world. These changes are called consequences.

They include the following:

(a) Realisation of the chosen end or motive.

(b) Realisation of the chosen means.

(c) Certain foreseen consequences. and

(d) Certain unforeseen, accidental consequences.

8. What is Kama? Why is it included in Purusartha.

Ans: Kama literally means desire. Desire is motivating power of all actions. Among the several aspects of the human mind, the desire aspect is significant. The nature of man is largely the nature of his desires. Kama is the cause of mutual attraction among different living beings. It is the basis of creation. It is essential for increase of race.

But it has been insisted by the Hindu thinkers that Kama must be based on Dharma. When time and place is not taken into consideration Kama can result in evil consequence and defame. It is thus important in the regulation of social life. Like Dharma, Artha and Moksa, Kama also have a social basis. Wealth is the means of fulfillment of Kama and other needs and the life system of society. Dharma implies the laws on which society is based Moksa is also important in human life. So, all the four Purusartha is equally important and Kama, like other Purusarthas, included in Purusartha.

9. Explain the meaning of Artha.

Ans: According to Kautilya, “the livelihood of human beings is the Artha”. Artha refers to wealth and power. Man is unable to conduct his life without the material means of living, because material aspect is an important as any other aspect of life. Man is not only spirit, he is body too. Our body demands certain things. To satisfy the demands of the body we need food, clothing, shelter, items of luxuries at times. We should try to earn money so that we may satisfy these demands. But the satisfaction of our desires and earning of wealth must be obtained on the basis of our righteous conduct. If the means for earning wealth are good the ends will be justified. Such a wealth will give prosperity both to the individual as well as to the society.

10. What do you mean by Moksa?

Ans: Moksa consists in realising the pure spiritual nature of the self beyond its physical, vital and mental or intellectual nature which are limited by time space and casualty. It consists in realising the transcendence of body, life, mind and intellect and time, space and causality. It consists in realising the eternality and immortality of the self.

D. LONG TYPE ANSWERS

1. What is action? Distinguish between moral and non-moral actions.

Ans: Action means both voluntary and habitual actions. A voluntary action is an action that is performed by a rational agent with desire, prevision and choice of ends and means. Habits are the results of repeated voluntary actions.

Moral Actions are those actions in which moral quality i.e. rightness or wrongness is present. Voluntary actions are performed knowingly and intelligently by self-conscious free agents with desire, provision and choice of ends and means. Therefore they are objects of moral judgement. On the other hand, ‘non-moral’ action means action which is devoid of moral quality. For example, the phenomena of nature i.e. hurricanes, floods, famines etc., the actions of animals, actions of children insane persons and idiots etc. are non-moral actions.

2. What is voluntary action? What are the characteristics of voluntary action?

Ans: Voluntary Actions are actions performed by an agent deliberately and intentionally in order to realise some foreseen ends. They are actions performed by the self with a volition or will.

A voluntary action has three stages viz. The mental stage, the bodily stage and the external stage of consequence.

(i) The mental Stage: Every Voluntary action is actuated by a spring of action. It is a feeling of want, actual or ideal. It is either an instinct or an appetite, or an intellectual, moral, or aesthetic craving. A feeling of want is always painful and generates an impulse. But it is usually mingled with pleasure which arises from the anticipation of satisfactions of the want in future. Thus the painful feeling of want is mixed with an agreeable feeling of ideal satisfaction. But the disageeable feeling predominates over the agreeable feeling. 

The feeling of want e.g. an appetite leads the rational agent to think out some appropriate object which is necessary to relieve the want. The object itself to remove the want, is said to be the end of the action. The idea to thought of the object which excites the state of desire for its attainment is called the motive.

The spring of action or the feeling of want is converted into a desire. Desire is a craving to satisfy a feeling of want by attaining its proper object. In desire there is the idea of the object or end or motive which will satisfy the feeling of want. There is also the idea of the means for realising the end.

In complex action many wants demand satisfaction. If one is satisfied, the other has to be rejected altogether. Thus, there arises in the mind a competition, rivalry or conflict between the different motives and desires.

When there is a conflict of motives, the self arrests action and deliberates upon the merits and demerits by different motives. The self weighs them in the balance and considers the pros and cons. This is called deliberation.

After deliberation, the self chooses a particular motive and identifies itself with it. It chooses a particulars course of action and rejects the rest. This act of selection of one motive to exclusion of others is called choice or decision.

(ii) Bodily stage: When choice or resolution has been made and kept up by resolution, it is converted into bodily action. The idea of movement attended to carries itself out into actual movement by its impulsive character of the idea of movement. This explanation is offered by William James.

(iii) External Stage of consequence: The bodily action produces changes in the external world. These are called consequences which include the following realisation of the choosen end intended means, desirable, or undesirable or both, certain foreseen consequences and certain unforeseen, unintended, accidental consequences. 

3. What is motive? Distinguish it from intention. 

Ans: The idea or thought of the object which excites the state of desire for its attainment is called the motive.

Motive is the efficient cause of action, whereas intention is the final cause of action. The above mention distinction given by J.S. Mill is not correct. Motive and Intention both are final cause of action. But intention is wider than motive. Motive is a part of intention. The motive of a voluntary action is the choosen end which is realized by it. It induces the self to act. But in order to realize an end, we have to employ means. The end may be pleasant. But it may be realized through an unpleasant means. Or, the end may be realized through means which are partly pleasant and partly unpleasant. Motive is the ideas of the chosen end. Intentions is the idea of the end and the idea of the means pleasant or unpleasant, choosen by the self. Thus intention is wider than motive.

4. Do you think that Ethics is a practical science? If not why? 

Ans: No, Ethics can not be called a practical science. A practical science teaches us to know how to do. A practical science is concerned with means for the realization of a definite end. For example, medical science is a practical science, because it does not seek to determine the ideal of health but points to the means by which one may be healthy. In this sense, Ethics cannot be regarded as a practical science. Ethics merely tries to ascertain the moral ideal, but does not lay down rules or means for the attainment of it. It does not teach us how to live a moral life. According to Mackenzie, Ethics gives us a knowledge of the guiding principles of life, but does not tell us how to apply them. It tells us what the virtue is, but it can not make us a saint. Thus, Ethics is not a practical science.

5. Write short note on conflict of desires.

Ans: In a complex action wants demand satisfaction. If one is satisfied, the other has to be rejected altogether. Thus, there arises in the mind a competition, rivalry or conflict between the different motives and desires. Conflict of Desire is the fourth stages of Mental Stage in voluntary action.

6. Explain Dharma as one of the Purusarthas.

Ans: Dharma occupies a very important place and position in Hindu social organisation. In our system everything is done in the name of dharma. Dharma is the code of right action. Dharma implies the laws or principles on which society is based. Once this righteous conduct is developed, one can try to secure the objects of one’s desire. Money and satisfaction of desire will not mislead a person. Dharma protects all. It is capable of preserving the universe. The social implication of dharma is to regulate human behaviour towards the path of righteousness.

Dharma does not mean a creed or religion. It denotes a mode of life or a code of conduct. The aim of Dharma is to bring the gradual development of a man and to enable him to reach the goal of human existence.

E. LONG TYPE ANSWERS

1. What is Ethics? Describe the nature of Ethics. 

Ans: Ethics is a science which is systematic explanation of the cause and effects of things. A positive science deals with what it is. It deals with facts and explains them by their causes. It tries to know what a thing really is by discovering its relations to other things, especially its causal relation. It is concerned with judgement upon conduct, its rightness or wrongness. It passes judgement of value upon human actions with reference to the moral ideal. It is not concerned with judgements fact, but with judgements of value. Thus Ethics is not a positive science but a normative science.

A positive science is also called a natural science. A normative science is also called a regulative science. Positive sciences are concerned with govern facts or events and investigate certain uniformities or laws which them. They describe the ways in which certain classes of objects are found to exist on the ways in which certain classes of events are found to occur in nature. They have no direct reference to any and or ideal by reference to which facts are judged. But normative science are not concerned with actual facts a or their laws but with norms which regulate human life.

Normative sciences seek to determine Norms, Ideals or Standards. There are three Ideals of human life viz. Truth, Beauty and Good. These are the supreme values in human experience. They correspond to the three aspects of our life-knowing, feeling and willing. Ethics is concerned with what is right in human action in the pursuit of Good, It interprets and explains our judgements of moral value. Ethics interprets and explains our judgements of moral value. Logic, Ethics and Aesthetics are normative sciences. Logic is the science of Truth. Ethics is the science of Good. Aesthetic is the science of Beauty. Truth is the ideal of knowledge. Good is ideal of will. Beauty is the ideal if feeling or emotion.

Ethics is not Practical science. A science teaches us to know, and an art to do. But a practical science teaches us to know how to do. It lies midway between science and art. Ethics tries to ascertain the moral ideal but does not lay down rules for the attainment of it. It does not teach us how to live a moral life. Ethics gives us a knowledge of guiding principles of life. But does not tell us how to apply them. So, Ethics though a normative science, is not a practical science. But the study of Ethics has a bearing on our moral life. It is a theory of morality and theory is bound to action practical life.

2. Describe the different sub-stages of mental stage of voluntary action.

Ans. The different sub-stages of mental stage of Voluntary Action are:

(a) The spring of action: Every voluntary action springs out of some want or need. This feeling of want may be actual or ideal. The feeling of want is always painful. But it is usually mingled with pleasure which arises from the anticipation of satisfaction of the want in future.

(b) End or motive: The feeling of want leads the rational agent to think out some appropriate object which is necessary to relieve the want. The object itself to remove the want, is said to be the end of the action. The idea or thought of the object which excites the state of desire for its attainment is called the motive.

(c) Desire: The spring of action or the feeling of want is converted into a desire. Desire is a craving to satisfy a feeling of want by attaining its proper object. In desire there is the idea of the object or end or motive which will satisfy the feeling of want. There is also the idea of the means for realising the end.

(d) Conflict of desires: In a complex many wants demand satisfaction. If one is satisfied, the other has to be rejected altogether. Thus, there arises in the mind a competition, rivalry or conflict between the different motives and desires.

(e) Deliberation: When there is a conflict of motives, the self arrests action and deliberates upon the merits and demerits of the different courses of action suggested by different motives. The self weighs them in the balance and considers the pros and cons. This is called deliberation.

(f) Decision or choice: After deliberation, the self chooses a particular motive and identifies itself with it. It chooses a particular course of action and rejects the rest. This act of selection of one motive to exclusion of other is called choice or decision.

3. What is the object of moral judgement? Discuss fully.

Ans: Voluntary actions and habitual actions are objects of moral judgements. Habitual actions are objects of moral judgements, because they are results of repeated voluntary actions. Thus ultimately only voluntary actions are judged to be right or wrong. Whatever is not willed has no normal worth. Voluntary actions imply the freedom of the will.

A voluntary action consists of three main steps:

(i) the mental stage of spring of action, motive, intention, desire, deliberation, choice and resolution.

(ii) the organic stage of bodily action.

(iii) the external stage of consequences.

Now the question arise:

(i) Do we judge an Act by its motives or its consequences? 

There is a hot controversy between Hedonists and Intuitionists. The Hedonists maintain that the rightness or wrongness of an action depends upon the consequences, while the Intuitionists maintain that it depends upon the motive. Then which of them determines its moral quality, when there is a harmony between the inner motive and the outer consequences, both are objects of moral judgements. Motive and consequence are not really opposed to each other. The motive is the inner idea of the outer consequence as foreseen and desired. The consequence is the outer manifestation of the inner motive. The motive or the idea of the end aimed at is undoubtedly the object of moral judgement. The consequence also is the object of moral judgement in so far as it realizes the inner motive. 

But sometimes it is found that the motive is good, but the consequence turns out to be bad. For example, a skillful surgeon performes an operation most carefully in order to cure a patient but in spite of his efforts the patient dies. The action of the surgeon can not be regarded as bad because his motive is good. Again, sometimes the motive is bad but the consequence turns out to be good. If I fling half-a-crown to a beggar with intention to break his head and he picks it up ans buys victuals with it the physical effect is good, but, with respect to me, the action is very wrong. Thus, when there is a conflict between the inner motive and the outer consequence, the moral quality of an action is determined by the inner motive and not by the consequence.

(ii) Is Motive or Intention the object of Moral Judgement?

We should not judge an action by motive alone. Sometimes the motive is good, but the means employed for the attainment of the end are bad. For example, a merchant adopts unfair means to gain wealth. His motive is gain which is not wrong. But he adopts wrong means. This makes his action wrong. If an act is judged by motive alone, we will thereby assume the dangerous principle that “the end justifies the means.” which means that a good end justifies wicked means. Therefore, motive alone is not the object of moral judgement. The end never justifies the means.

Thus we conclude that “intention” is the object of moral judgement. It includes the “motive” or the idea of the “end” as well as the idea of the “means”. An action is good of intention is good. Intention = motive + means + foreseen consequences. Thus, an action is right if both the end or motive and the means are good an action is wrong if either of them is bad.

4. What do you mean by non-moral actions? What are they? How can you distinguish them from moral actions.

Ans: Non-moral Actions are those which are devoid of moral quality. We can not speak of the phenomena of nature, e.g. hurricanes, floods, famines etc. as either moral or immoral. The actions of animals are also neither moral nor immoral. Actions of children, insane persons and idiots who are not capable of reflection and discrimination are devoid of moral quality. Actions done under coercion are non-moral, if they can not be resisted. Actions under hypnotic suggestion, which is irresistible, are non- moral action. Actions under the pressure of irresistable “complexes” are non-moral. These are not normal actions and therefore devoid of moral quality. Non-voluntary actions of same human adults also are non-moral. The reflex actions, random actions, instinctive actions, ideomotor actions, spontaneous expressions of emotions and accidental actions are devoid of moral quality.

Moral Actions are those actions in which moral quality i.e. rightness or wrongness is present. Voluntary actions are performed knowingly and intelligently by self-couscious free agents with desire, provision and choice of ends and means. Therefore they are objects of moral judgement. On the other hand, ‘non-moral’ action means action which is devoid of moral quality. For example, the phenomena of nature i.e. hurricanes, floods, famines etc., the actions of animals, actions of children insane persons and idiots etc. are non-moral actions.

5. What is Moksa? Write a note on it.

Ans: Moksa consists in realizing the pure spiritual nature of the self beyond its physical, vital and mental or intellectual nature which are limited by time space and casuality. It consists in realizing the transcendence of body, life, mind and intellect and time, space and casuality. It consists in realizing the eternality and immortality of the self.

The different systems of Indian philosophy lay down the means to the attainments of liberation. The path of knowledge or Jnana Marga, path of karma or karma marga, path of devotion or Bhaktimarga are some of them.

According to most of the schools of Indian philosophy, the success of human life lies in the attainment of Moksa. The ultimate end of Buddha’s philosophy is ‘Nirvana’. Extinction of suffering is called Nirvana. It is a state of perfect peace. The Nyaya and the Vaisesika look upon the existence of the self in its natural condition as liberation. It consists in absolute cessation of pain. The Mimamsa philosophy also considers complete destruction of merit and demerit and absolute extinction of pain as liberation. The Sankhya considers absolute negation of “three fold offerings” as release. Sankara conceives it as the highest state of the elf’s identity with Brahman or infinite and eternal bliss. Ramanuja and the Bhagavat Gita conceive it as the self’s essential community with God, the Supreme person. It is the realization of the infinite bliss of God.

6. Describe briefly ‘Artha’ a Purusarthas.

Ans: There are four purusartha in every person’s life. ‘Artha’ is one of these four. It has been given an important place in Indian culture. Kautilya has defined Artha in his Arthashastra as, ‘The livelihood of human beings in the Artha.’

Artha refers to wealth and power. Man is unable to conduct his life without the material means of living, because material aspect is as important as any other aspect of life. Man has a body which demands certain things. To satisfy the demands of the body we need not only the primary requirements but the items of luxuries at time. To satisfy these demands we earn money. But to earn money or wealth, our conduct should be right. The Hindu thinkers give more stress on means rather than on ends. If the means for earning wealth are good the ends will be justified. Such a wealth will give prosperity both to the individual as well as to the society.