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Class 12 Sociology Chapter 2 Social Institutions: Continuity & Change
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Social Institutions: Continuity & Change
| A. VERY SHORT TYPE QUESTION & ANSWER |
1. Give the meaning of Caste?
Ans: Caste implies to an ascriptive group, membership of which is determined by birth.
2. Define Caste?
Ans: According to Arnold Green, “Caste is a system of stratification in which mobility, up and down the status ladder, at least ideally may not occur.”
According to Cooley, “When a class is some what strictly hereditary, we may call it a caste”.
3. How caste provides social security?
Ans: Castes are traditionally linked with occupations. An person born into a caste can practice the occupation associated with that caste. Moreover at present day, caste works as an element of social cohesion.
4. What is a tribe?
Ans: Tribe means a social group consisting of collections of families and lineages or class based on shared ties of kinship, ethnicity, common history, territorial political organisation etc. A tribe is a single inclusive group though it may have divisions based on class or lineages.
5. Define tribe?
Ans: Tribe is a modern term, which refers communities that are very old, being among the oldest inhabitants of the sub-continent. The tribal communities didn’t practice a religion with a written text, didn’t have state class divisions and they didn’t have caste and were neither Hindus nor peasants. The term tribe was used in colonial era mainly for administrative convenience to refer a very disparate set of communities.
6. What do you mean by inter caste marriage?
Ans: Marriage between two different castes are known as inter caste marriage.
7. Give the meaning of family?
Ans: Family is that unit of social life whose every member is related either through blood relation or marriage or adoption. Maclner and Page define family by saying that it is a group defined by relationship, sufficiently practiced and endures to provide for the procreation and upbringing of the children.
9. What is a nuclear family?
Ans: In common parlence, a nuclear family is a small family in which generally a couple lives with their minor or unmarried children.
10. Define joint family?
Ans: A joint family can take different forms. However, joint family has more than one couple and often more than two generations living together. This could be a set of brothers with their individual families or an elderly couple, their sons, grandsons and their families.
11. What is polygamy?
Ans: The practice of having more than one wife or husband at the same time is known as polygamy.
12. What is a patriarchal family?
Ans: In a patriarchal family man exercise authority and dominance over the family.
13. What is a matriarchal family?
Ans: When the women of a family exercise authority and dominance in that family, it is termed as matriarchal family. Matriarchal family is a theoritical rather than practical concept.
14. What is a matrilineal family?
Ans: In matrilineal family, women inherit property from their mothers.
15. What is a patrilineal family?
Ans: In a patrilineal family, son inherit the property of his father.
16. What is a matrilocal family?
Ans: In a matrilocal family, the newly married couple stays with the woman’s parents.
17. What is a patrilocal family?
Ans: In the partilocal family, the newly married couple stays with the man’s parents.
18. What is Kinship?
Ans: In common parlence, kinship is understood that part of culture which deals with notions of or ideas about relatedness or relationship through birth and marriage.
19. Differentiate between ‘Jati’ and ‘Varna’?
Ans: The most common difference between ‘Jati’ and ‘Varna’ is that while the four varna classification is common to all of India, the jati hierarchy has more local classifications that vary from region to region.
20. Give the meaning of marriage?
Ans: Marriage is a socially acknowledged and approved sexual union between two adult individuals. When two people marry, they become kin to one another.
21. Who established Satyashadhak Samaj and why?
Ans: Jyotiba Phule.
Satyashadhak Samaj was created to secure human rights and social justice for low caste people.
22. When were the untouchables castes given the name of schedules?
Ans: During colonial period particularly after the census of 1901, the British govt. make schedule of untouchable castes. From than, the untouchable castes, which were included in the schedule became known as schedule caste.
23. What is meant by market?
Ans: Generally, market means a place where things are bought and sold. Sometimes, it may refer to a place, like wholesale market, station market etc. In another sense, market refers to an area or category of trade or business. It may also refer to the demand for a particular product or service, such as market for IT professionals.
24. What is meant by market economy according to Adam Smith?
Ans: Adam Smith in his famous work ‘The Wealth of Nations’ attempted to understand the market economy, that was just emerging at that time. According to Smith, market economy is made up of a series of individual exchanges or transactions, which automatically create a functioning and ordered system. This happens even though none of the individuals involved in millions of transactions had intended to create a system.
25. What is meant by Policy of laissez faire?
Ans: Laissez-fair is a French phrase, which means ‘leave alone’ or ‘let it be’ Laissez-fair is an economic philosophy that advocates free market system and minimal government intervention in economic matters. Adam Smith supported the idea of free market.
26. What is a weekly market?
Ans: In most agarian and ‘peasant’ societies around the world, periodic markets are a central feature. In India, the weekly market is a very common sight in rural and even urban areas. The weekly market is the major institution for the exchange of goods as well as for social intercourse.
27. What is meant by exchange?
Ans: Exchange is the process of giving something and eceive something else in return.
28. What is Hundi?
Ans: In India, traditional trading communities or castes had their own system of banking and credit. Hundi was an important instrument of exchange and credit like modern bill of exchange, which allowed merchants to engage in long distance trade. As in ancient India, trade took place within the caste and kinship networks; a merchant in one part of the country could issue a hundi that would be honored by a merchant in another place.
29. What is liberalisation?
Ans: Liberalisation is a process, whereby state controls over economic activity are relaxed and left to the market forces to decide. Liberalisation includes policies such as privatisation of public sector enterprises, loosening of govt. regulation on capital, labour, trade etc.
30. What is globalisation?
Ans: Globalisation is a complex series of economic, social, technological, cultural and political changes that have increased the interdependence, integration and interaction among people and economic actors (companies) in disparate locations.
31. What are the reasons of liberalisation?
Ans: The revolutionary changes that took place in the field of science and technology is one of the prime reasons of liberalization. The growth of market economy all over the globe created the environment for the growth of liberalisation.
32. What is Privatisation?
Ans: Socialist and democratic countries have mixed type of economy. This type of economy have public enterprises which are under direct control of government. Sometimes government gives control of these public enterprises to private parties so that they could earn more and more profit. This process of giving public enterprises to private hands is known as privatisation.
34. Who was Savitri Bai Phule?
Ans: Savitri Bai Phule was the first woman in Pune who opened the first school for girls and devoted her life to educating shudras and Atshudras. She served plague patients in Pune.
35. Mention the name of the act passed to give legal recognition to the schedule castes and tribe.
Ans: Government of India Act. 1935.
36. Caste is more product of colonialism than of ancient Indian. (True/False)
Ans: False.
37. When was the term “TRIBE” introduce?
Ans: The term ‘TRIBE’ was introduced in the colonial period.
38. What is market economy?
Ans: Adam Smith in his famous work “The wealth of Nations” attempted to understand the market economy, that was just emerging at that time. According to him, market economy is made up of a series of individual exchanges or transactions, which automatically create a functioning and ordered system. This happens even though none of the individuals involved in millions of transactions had intended to create a system.
39. What is NASDAQ?
Ans: NASDAQ is the name of a major electronic stock exchange located in New York. It operates exclusively through computerised electronic communications. It allow stock brokers and investors from around the world to buy and sell shares in the companies.
| S.L No. | CONTENTS |
| Chapter – 1 | Structure Of Indian Society |
| Chapter – 2 | Social Institutions: Continuity & Change |
| Chapter – 3 | Social Inequality & Exclusion |
| Chapter – 4 | The Challenges Of Unity In Diversity |
| Chapter – 5 | Project Work |
| Chapter – 6 | Process Of Social Change In India |
| Chapter – 7 | Social Change And The Polity |
| Chapter – 8 | Social Change And The Economy |
| Chapter – 9 | New Areas Of Social Change |
| Chapter – 10 | Social Movements |
| B. SHORT TYPE QUESTION & ANSWER |
1. Give the social functions of family.
Ans: Some important social functions of family are:
(i) It regularises sexual relationship.
(ii) It transform culture from one generation to the next generations.
(iii) Family works as the prime agency of social control.
2. What is hierarchy?
Ans: Generally hierarchy means classification of things according to their relative importance. In social science, hierarchy implies a system in which people are ranked one above the other according to status and authority.
3. What are the characteristics of a family?
Ans: The chief characteristics of family are the followings:
(i) Family is an universal institution.
(ii) The basis of family is emotional attachment.
(iii) The size of family is always limited. A married couple along with their children and grandchildren constitutes family.
(iv) Family is a primary unit. It is a basic unit of social control.
4. What are the changes that have come into caste system?
Ans: The institution of caste underwent major changes during the colonial period. The 1901 census, under the direction of Herbert Risley, was particularly important as it collected information on the social hierarchy of caste i.e. the position of each caste in the rank order. Scholars effect that this kind of direct attempt to count caste and to officially record caste status changed the institution itself. Before this kind of intervention, caste identities had been less rigid; once they began to be counted and recorded. caste identities became more rigid.
The land revenue settlement laws gave legal recognition to caste based rights of the upper castes. These castes now become land owners in modern sense rather than feudal lords with claims on produce of the land. Thus, upper castes became land owners.
Towards the end to the colonial period, the British administration took interest in the welfare of downtrodden castes, referred as the ‘depressed classes’ at that time. The govt. of India Act 1935 gave legal recognition to the lists or schedules of caste and tribes to provide special treatment by the state. Thus, the term ‘Scheduled Tribes’ and ‘Scheduled castes’ came into being. The present system of reservation for S.C., S.T. came into being in the colonial period.
5. Which are the restrictions related with caste?
Ans: One important principle that the caste system imposed in India is the principle of inequality. Caste was a very unequal institution- some castes benefitted greatly from the system, while others were condemned to a life of endless labour and subordination. Moreover, the institution of caste is hierarchical, where each caste occupies an ordered rank in a ladder like arrangement arranging from highest to lowest. Thus, caste system impose the principle of inequality in our own society.
Caste system also imposed the principle of ‘purity and pollution’ in our society. Purity is believed to be closer to the sacred, while pollution is something believed to be distant or opposed to the sacred, therefore considered ritually polluting. Castes that are considered ritually pure have high status, while those considered less pure, have low status. Thus, caste system imposed the principle of ‘purity and pollution’ in our society.
Caste system also imposed social division of labour, as caste system is linked with occupation. In Principle, except that caste system allows no mobility. Thus, caste system strictly impose social division of labour.
Thus, caste system impose restrictions ranging from marriage to, food sharing and social interaction to occupation.
6. Which are the changes coming in the function of a family?
Ans: One essential function of family is to regularise sexual relationship. Earlier elder members of family choosed their spouses. But now the young people choose their sponses.
In India structures of family have changed from joint family to nuclear family. Now both the male as well as female members of the family do work outside home. At present in Indian IT hubs, work schedules are very tight which gives birth the practice of taking food outside the home. Now the working women prefers to take packaged food instead of preparing food.
At present, the structure of family is also changing. Now we see increasing number of grandparents moving in as care gives to their young grand children whose parents work in software industries.
These are some of the changes that are we see in the functions and structure of family.
7. What is the contribution of cast in increasing untouchability?
Ans: One important principle that the caste system imposed in India is the principle of inequality. Caste was a very unequal institution – some castes benefitted greatly from the system, while others were condemned to a life of endless labour and subordination. Moreover, the institution of caste is hierarchical, where each caste occupies an ordered rank in a ladder like arrangement arranging from highest to lowest. Thus, caste system impose the principle of inequality in our own society.
Caste system also imposed the principle of ‘purity and pollution’ in our society. Purity is believed to be closer to the sacred, while pollution is something believed to be distant or opposed to the sacred, therefore considered ritually polluting. Castes that are considered ritually pure have high status, while those considered less pure, have low status. Thus, caste system imposed the principle of ‘purity and pollution’ in our society. Caste system also imposed social division of labour, as caste system is linked with occupation. In Principle, except that caste system allows no mobility. Thus, caste system strictly impose social division of labour.
Caste system also imposed the principle of ‘purity and pollution’ in our society. Purity is believed to be closer to the sacred, while pollution is something believed to be distant or opposed to the sacred, therefore considered ritually polluting. Castes that are considered ritually pure have high status, while those considered less pure, have low status. Thus, caste system imposed the principle of ‘purity and pollution’ in our society.
The principle of difference and separation has also a close association with the caste system. Each caste is supposed to be different from and therefore strictly separated from every other caste.
Thus, the principle of inequality, the principle of purity and pollution along with the principle of difference and separation leads to untouchability. According to Gandhi, it is ‘the hatefulest expression of caste.”
8. Give the difference between caste and class as a form of dsocial stratification.
Ans: The prime difference between caste and class as a form of social stratification is that while the class is open, caste is closed. Caste is a closed system of social stratification where social mobility is almost zero. On the other hand, class is an open system of social stratification where social mobility is maximum.
Secondly, caste is ascriptive, while class is something prescriptive. The stratification the basis of caste is solely based on birth, while stratification on basis of class is solely based on economic status.
9. What is the importance of kinship system?
Ans: The bond of blood or marriage which binds people together in a group is called kinship. The importance of kinship lies in the fact that it creates a group. Marriage assigns each mother a husband and makes her children his children and thus creates a family. Moreover, kinship govern the role relationship between kins that is how one kinsman should behave in a particular kinsman’s presence, or what one kinsman owes to another. Kinship assaigns guidelines for interactions between persons.
10. What are the main objectives of liberalisation?
Ans: The prime objective of liberalisation is creation of a word market, which is free and fair. Liberalisation involves the policy of privatisation, de-licensing etc. To faster economic growth liberalisation insists on foreing direct investment. Free flow of capital and technical know how is also an important objective of liberalisation.
11. Give some features of liberalisation policy?
Ans: Some features of liberalisation policy are as under:
(i) Free market: One feature of liberalisation is free market or laissez fair. Laissez fair is an economic philosophy that advocates free market system and minimal governmental intervention in economic matters.
(ii) Privatisation: Privatisation implies selling out governmental companies or the process of disinvestment, which is also a central feature of liberalisation.
(iii) Extension and integration of market, which means that changes in a market in one part of the globe affects somewhere else farway.
(iv) Marketisation, which means use of market based processes to solve social, political and economic problems.
12. Give four principles of globalisation.
Ans: Globalisation is that process in which economy of one country is attached with economics of other countries. It means that inrestricted exchange of things, services, capital and labour of one country with other countries is known as globalisation. There is a open and free exchange of trade between different countries.
(i) The process of globalisation is more economic than political and social. It actually implies growing economic interconnectedness all around the globe.
(ii) The sole force behind the process of globalisation is scientific and technological development that took place within a very short span of time. The fastest means of communication like internet, mobile phone, sattelite tv game impetus to globalisation.
(iii) Globalisation demands liberalisation of national trade so that free flow of capital and goods and technical know how can take place. So, Globalisation demands laissez fair policy.
(iv) Privatisation is another important characteristics of globalisation. Globalisation needs competition in the market which demands selling out of government companies to private firms in order to increase their economy and efficiency. Thus, globalisation involves the policy of disinvestment.
(v) Globalisation is a period in which the word is becoming increasingly interconnected not only economically, but culturally and politically too. Globalisation includes a number of trends, especially the increase in international movement of commodities, money, information etc. Development of technology like computers, telecommunication and means of transport facilitates this this movement. A central feature of globalisation is the increasing extension and integration of markets around the world. Under globalisation, not only money and goods, but also people, cultural products and images circulate rapidly around the world.
13. What kind of changes came into tribal weekly market?
Ans: Though the weekly market in tribal areas are a very old institution, it has changed its character over time. After these remote areas were brought under the control the Britishers, they were gradually incorporated into the wider regional and national economic. Tribal areas were opened up by building roads, so that the rich forest and mineral resources of these areas could be exploited. This led to influx of traders, moneylanders and other non-tribal people from plains to these areas. The local market transformed as forest produce was sold to outsiders and new kinds of goods, entered the system. Tribals were also recruited and thus a market for tribal labour developed.
These are some of the changes that took place in tribal weekly market over the years.
14. What is meant by Production?
Ans: Production simply means creations of goods and services. Earlier production meant agricultural production. In the industrial era production implied both agricultural and industrial outputs. Howerver at present time, production along with agricultural and industrial production includes creation of services also.
15. What do you mean by consumption?
Ans: Consumption means final use of goods and services by people who have purchased them. Consumption is an important feature of capitalist society not just for economic seasons, but because of its symbolic meaning. In modern societies, social distinctions are created and communicated by way of consumption. The consumer conveys a message about his or her socio economic status or cultural preference by buying certain goods, while the companies also try to sells their goods by appealing to symbols of status or culture.
16. What is distribution?
Ans: In simple sense, distribution means the action of distributing. In social science it refers to process of allocation of resources to different stakeholders of society, which normally carry an impression of uneven distribution wealth and services.
17. Write the characteristics of capitalism.
Ans: Capitalism is a mode of production based on generalised commodity production or a social system where
(i) Private property and market have penetrated all sectors and
(ii) Two main classes exist – capitalists and labourers.
The followings are the chief characteristics of capitalism:
(i) The chief motive of capitalist mode of production is profit making.
(ii) In capitalist system of production, generally two classes exists- capitalist and labourers. Capitalist class is the owner of means of production and distribution whereas the labour class don’t have any property.
(iii) In capitalist system the capitalist exploits the labourers.
18. What are the main two criteria of the classification of tribe based on acquired traits?
Ans: The main two criteria of the classification of tribe based on acquired traits are – mode of livelihood and extent of incorporation into Hindu society or a combination of the two.
19. What is dominant caste. Give e.g.. of any two dominant caste of India.
Ans: The concept of ‘dominant caste’ was contributed by M.N.Srinivas. The term ‘dominant caste’ refers to those castes, which had a large population and were granted land rights after independence. In the era of electoral democracy based on universal adult franchise their large numbers gave them political power, while land reforms emerged in Indian society. Examples of such dominant castes includes the yadavas of Bihar and Reddys of Andhra Pradesh.
21. What are the major changes taking place in the caste system during the colonial period?
Ans: The institution of caste underwent major changes during the colonial period. The 1901 census, under the direction of Herbert Risley, was particularly important as it collected information on the social hierarchy of caste. Before this kind of intervention, cast identities had been less rigid, once they began to be counted and recorded, caste identities become more rigid.
The land revenue settlement laws gave legal recognition to caste based rights of the upper castes. These castes now become land owners in modern sense rather than feudal lords with claims on produce of the land. Thus, upper castes became land owners.
Towards the end of the colonial period, the British administration took interest in the welfare of downtrodden castes, referred as the ‘depressed classes’ at that time. The govt. of India Act. 1935 gave legal recognition to the lists or schedules of caste and tribes to provide special treatment by the state. Thus, the term, ‘Scheduled Tribes’ and Schedules castes’ came into being. The present system of reservation for S.C. and S.T. came into being in the colonial period.
22. What is tribalism?
Ans: Tribalism is a way of thinking or behaving in which people are more loyal to their tribe than to their friends, their country, or any other social group, Tribalism is that type of ideology by which the tribal groups begin to define themselves as tribals in order to distinguish themselves from the newly encountered others.
23. Explain market as a social institution.
Ans: Sociologists view markets as social institutions that are constructed in culturally specific ways. For example, markets are often controlled or organised by particular social groups or classes and have specific connections to other institutions, social process and structures.
Thus, market is a social institution.
24. What did Adam Smith try to explain by ‘invisible hand”?
Ans: Adam Smith argued that capitalist economy is driven by individual self interest and works best when individual buyers and sellers take rational decisions that serves their own interests. Adam smith believed that when each person will look after his own self interest, the interest of the entire society will be looked after. In this sense, there seems to be some sort of an unseen force at work that converts what is good for each individual into what is good for the society. This unseen force was called ‘the invisible hand by Adam smith.
25. What is status symbol?
Ans: Max Weber pointed out that the goods that people buy and use are closely related to their status in society. Weber coined the term status symbol’ to describe this relationship.
26. Give two eg. of commodification of things or services which were not a part of market exchange earlier.
Ans: Following are two examples of commodification of things or services which were not a part of market exchange earlier.
(i) Marriage were arranged by families before, but now, there are professional marriage bureaus and websites that keep people to find brides and grooms.
(ii) Packaged drinking water marketed by a wide variety of companies in sales plastic bottles.
27. What are the negative social effects of commodification?
Ans: There are negative social effects of commodification also. The commodification of labour is one example. Another example of negative effects of commodification is that the sale of kidneys by the poor to cater to rich patients who need kidney transplants According to many people, human organs should not become commodities.
| C. LONG TYPE QUESTION & ANSWER |
1. What have been some of the difficulties with defining ‘tribes’ in the Indian context?
Ans: Tribe is a modern term, which refers communities that are very old, being among the oldest inhabitants of the sub-continent. The tribal communities didn’t practice a religion with a written text, didn’t have state class divisions and they didn’t have caste and were neither Hindus nor peasants. The term tribe was used in colonial era mainly for administrative convenience to refer a very disparate set of communities.
Tribe has been classified according to their permanent and acquired traits.
Permanent Traits: Permanent traits include region, language, physical characteristics and ecological habitats. About 8.5% of the tribal population lives in middle India i.e. Gujarat, Rajasthan, WB, Orissa, MP, Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Out of remaining 15%, 11% lives in the North Eastern state, leaving only 3% living in the rest of India.
In terms of language, tribes are categorised into four categories -Indo- Aryan, Dravidian, Austric and Tibeto-Burman. In physical racial terms. tribes are classified under the Negrito, Australoid, Mongoloid, Dravidian and Aryan categories.
Acquired traits: Classification based on acquired traits use two main criteria-mode of livelihood and extent of incorporation into Hindu society or a combination of the two.
On the basis of livelihood, tribes can be categorised into fishermen, food gatherers and hunters, shifting cultivators, peasants, industrial workers etc. So far as the extent of incorporation into Hindu society is concerned, it can be seen from the point of view of the tribes or from the point of view of the Hindu mainstream. From tribes point of view, there are mainly two types tribes, that are inclined towards Hinduism and those who resist or oppose it. From the mainstream point of view, tribes may be viewed in terms of the status accorded to them in Hindu society, ranging from high status given to some and generally low status accorded to most.
2. Discuss in brief the major characteristics of joint family?
Ans: The followings are the major characteristics of joint family:
(i) Large size: A joint family has a large size. It consists of parents, children, grand children and other near relatives with their wives.
(ii) Commoan residence: The members of the joint family usually live under the same roof.
(iii) A producing unit: Joint family works as a producing unit. Joint family is helpful in agriculture and business work.
(iv) Joint property: The ownership, production and consumption of wealth takes place on joint basis. The head of the family is like a trustee who manages the property of the family for welfare of the family members.
3. Explain the role of caste system in modernage.
Ans: In the contemporary period, caste has tended to become invisible for the upper caste, urban middle and upper castes. These groups have benefited the most from the development policies taken by the govt. of independent India. Getting benefit from subsidised public education and taking advantage of the expansion of state sector jobs in the early decades after independence, such groups became leader of the entire society. As their privileged status got consolidated in the second and third generations, these groups began to believe that their advancement had little to do with caste. For these groups, it now seems that caste plays no part in their public lives, being limited to the personal sphere of religious practice, marriage and kinship. In this sense, caste became relatively invisible for the urban upper caste.
For the scheduled castes, tribes and the backward castes, caste identity has tended to eclipse the other dimensions of their identity. As these backward castes had no inherited educational and social capital and as they have to compete with an already entrenched upper caste group, they have to redy on their caste identity, because caste is one of few collective assets they have. The policies of reservation and other protective discrimination policies taken by the state, serve as the lifelines of the lower castes. The lower castes always tried to exert political pressure upon the govt. to safeguard these lifelines. Thus, caste identity has become all important, often the only aspect of their identity.
4. Explain in brief the different characteristics of tribe?
Ans: (i) The tribal people didn’t practice a religion with a written text.
(ii) The tribals didn’t have a state or political organisation of the normal kind.
(iii) Tribals didn’t have caste and were neither Hindus nor peasants.
(iv) Tribals lived in isolated geographical locations and followed a natural life style in keeping compliance with the geographical location.
(v) Every tribal group have their own dialect.
5. How have the living conditions of tribal communities changed after independence?
Ans: Immediately after independence, the govt. of India followed the policy of reservation. In conjunction with the policy of reservation, education is creating an urbanised professional class. Gradual emergence of educated middle class among tribal communities helped in raising their living standards. However, after independence, government policies also created huge problems for the tribal communities.
National development during Nehruian era disposed tribals of their land. During this period, many big dams, factories and mines were set up. As the tribal areas were located in mineral rich and forest covered the country for building dams and for exploitation of minerals, the tribes of parts were evicted. Thus, this kind of development benefited the mainstream on the expense of the tribes.
The loss of forest was a major blow for the tribal communities. Forests started to be systematically exploited in British times and this trend continues after independence. The governmental decission making land a private property also adversely affected tribal people.
Many tribal regions have also experienced the problems of heavy migration of non-tribals. This threatens to disrupt and overwhelm tribal communities and cultures, besides accelerating the process of exploitation of tribals. As for example, state like Tripura had the tribal share of its population halted within a single decade, reducing the tribals to a minority.
6. Explain the ways in which tribal communities have been classified on the basis of permanent traits.
Ans: Tribe has been classified according to their permanent and acquired traits.
Permanent Traits: Permanent traits include region, language, physical characteristics and ecological habitats. About 8.5% of the tribal population lives in middle India i.e. Gujarat, Rajasthan, WB, Orissa, MP, Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Out of remaining 15%, 11% lives in the North Eastern state, leaving only 3% living in the rest of India.
In terms of language, tribes are categorised into four categories- Indo- Aryan, Dravidian, Austric and Tibeto-Burman. In physical racial terms, tribes are classified under the Negrito, Australoid, Mongoloid, Dravidian and Aryan categories.
Acquired traits: Classification based on acquired traits use two main criteria-mode of livelihood and extent of incorporation into Hindu society or a combination of the two.
On the basis of livelihood, tribes can be categorised into fishermen, food gatherers and hunters, shifting cultivators, peasants, industrial workers etc. So far as the extent of incorporation into Hindu society is concerned, it can be seen from the point of view of the tribes or from the point of view of the Hindu mainstream. From tribes point of view, there are mainly two types tribes, that are inclined towards Hinduism and those who resist or oppose it. From the mainstream point of view, tribes may be viewed in terms of the status accorded to them in Hindu society, ranging from high status given to some and generally low status accorded to most.
7. Discuss the main factors influencing the formation of tribal identity in recent times.
Ans: Tribal identities today are formed mainly by the interactional process of the tribes with the mainstream, because the interaction with the mainstream has generally been unfavorable to the tribal communities. Many tribal identities today are centred on ideas of resistance and opposition to the overwhelming force of the non-tribal world.
Assertion of tribal identities are rising with the emergence of an educated middle class within the tribal society. In conjunction with policies of reservation, education is creating an urbanised professional class among tribal communities. With the emergence of this class, issues of culture, tradition, livelihood, even control over land and resources as well as demands for a share in the benefits of the modern projects have become integral part of the articulation of identity among the tribes.
8. Explain briefly the different characteristics of globalisation.
Ans: Globalisation is that process in which economy of one country is attached with economics of other countries. It means that inrestricted exchange of things, services, capital and labour of one country with other countries is known as globalisation. There is a open and free exchange of trade between different countries.
(i) The process of globalisation is more economic than political and social. It actually implies growing economic interconnectedness all around the globe.
(ii) The sole force behind the process of globalisation is scientific and technological development that took place within a very short span of time. The fastest means of communication like internet, mobile phone, sattelite tv game impetus to globalisation.
(iii) Globalisation demands liberalisation of national trade so that free flow of capital and goods and technical know how can take place. So, Globalisation demands laissez fair policy.
(iv) Privatisation is another important characteristics of globalisation. Globalisation needs competition in the market which demands selling out of government companies to private firms in order to increase their economy and efficiency. Thus, globalisation involves the policy of disinvestment.
(v) Globalisation is a period in which the word is becoming increasingly interconnected not only economically, but culturally and politically too. Globalisation includes a number of trends, especially the increase in international movement of commodities, money, information etc. Development of technology like computers, telecommunication and means of transport facilitates this this movement. A central feature of globalisation is the increasing extension and integration of markets around the world. Under globalisation, not only money and goods, but also people, cultural products and images circulate rapidly around the world.
9. What do you know about capitalism?
Ans: Capitalism is a mode of production based on generalised commodity production or a social system where:
(i) Private property and market have penetrated all sectors and
(ii) Two main classes exist-capitalists and labourers.
The followings are the chief characteristics of capitalism:
(i) The chief motive of capitalist mode of production is profit making.
(ii) In capitalist system of production, generally two classes exists- capitalist and labourers. Capitalist class is the owner of means of production and distribution whereas the labour class don’t have any property.
(iii) In capitalist system the capitalist exploits the labourers.
10. Explain with examples the meaning of the term ‘commodification’?
Ans: Commoditization or commodification is the process by which, something which was earlier not a commodity is made into a commodity and becomes a part of market economy.
For example, marriages were arranged by families, but now, there are professional marriage bureaus and websites that keep people to find brides and grooms for a fee. Another example of commoditization is the example of packaged drinking water marketed by a wide variety of companies in sealed plastic bottles. It is a new phenomenon not more than ten or fifteen years old.
11. What was the impact of globalisation on Indian economy?
Ans: In India the policy of liberalisation started in late 1980s. Under the liberalisation programme, Indian markets were opened up to foreign companies. Now, many foreign branded goods are sold in India. which were not previously available. Under liberalization programme privatisation of public companies started in India. Earlier, Indian agriculture was protected from the world market by support prices and subsidies: But after liberalisation, such support prices and subsidies are reduced or withdrawn. Similarly, after liberalisation, as foreign multinationals entered in the Indian market, the small manufacturers had to face tremendous competition from such foreign firms. Moreover, liberalisation programme have stimulated economic growth in India.
After liberalisation, employment avenues for Indian youth multiplied as foreign big firms started outsourcing in India.
These are the changes that took place in Indian economy after liberalisation.
12. What are the main arguments for and against globalisation? Which portion will you take in this debate and why?
Ans: Argumants in favour of globalisation:
(i) After globalisation foreign firms and multinational companies entered in the Indian market. As a result of this process, employment avenues multiplied. New production unit, selling point, customar care, office and mainly outsourcing started in India which are multiplying employment opportunities.
(ii) After globalisation foreign direct investments are coming to India, which is really boosting Indian economy. Moreover, after following disinvestment process, economic growth in India accelareted.
Arguments against globalisation:
(i) Prior to globalisation, Indian agriculture was protected from the world market by support prices and subsidies. But after liberalisation, such support prices and subsidies were either reduced or withdrawn. Hence, Indian formers now facing hard challenges and as a result suicide cases of farmers increased after globalisation.
(ii) As a result of following liberalisation policy, foreing multinations entered in the Indian market. As a result, the small manufacturers had to face tremendous competition from such foreign firms.
Now, globalisation is unstopable. So, are have to move with globalisation. But, we have to make necessary safeguards to protect our farmers and small traders and general people.
13. What has been the role of colonialism in the emergence of new markets?
Ans: The advent of colonialism in India produced major upheavals in the economy, causing disruptions in production, trade and agriculture. A fine example is the demise of the handloom industry, due to the flooding of the market with cheap manufactured textiles from England. Before colonized by the British. India was a major supplier of manufactured goods to the market. But after colonisation, India became a source of raw materials and instead of supplier, she became consumer of manufactured goods, largely for the benefit of industrialising England. During colonial period, many new merchant communities emerged by taking advantage of changing economics scenario and continued to hold economic power even after independence. A good example of this process is the Marwari community. The marwaris became a successful business community only during the colonical period.
Above all, we shouldn’t forget that Indian economy was fully monetized during colonial period.
These are the changes colonialism brought to Indian economy.
Moreover, colonialism created business cities like Culcutta, Mumbai etc. The Britishers settled in coastal cities and carryont trade and business all over India. The some of the modern Indian cities were erected by the Britishers mainly due to business intention.
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